2. Systems Approach
Previously, 1. What is project management?
2.1 Systems and system thinking
Definition:
A System is “an assemblage of things or parts interacting in a coordinated way”.
Features:
- Parts of the system affect the system and are affected by it.
- The assemblage of parts serves a purpose or goal.
- The assemblage is of particular interest.
2.2 System concepts and principles
Natural vs Human-Made Systems:
- Natural systems comes into being by natural processes (e.g. animal organisms and planetary systems).
- Human-made systems are designed and operated by people (e.g. communication systems and human organisation).
Projects exist for the purpose of:
- creating new systems
- changing human-made systems
- altering natural systems
Goals and objectives:
Human-made systems are designed to do something.
A goal or mission is defined as a broad, all-encompassing statement of the purpose of a system.
An objective is a more detailed, usually quantifiable statement of purpose pertaining to some aspect of the system
For example, the goal of the project may be “build a space station for $15 billion in 10 years.”
From setting the goal, the project can then be defined in terms of many objectives such as “select overall design for the station,” “train crew,” “launch components into orbit,” “assemble components,” “do project for cost $15 billion,” and so on.
Elements and subsystems:
Any system can be broken down into smaller parts or elements.
Some systems can also be broken down into parts that are themselves systems, called subsystems.
==A subsystem is a system that functions as an element of a larger system. When it is not necessary to understand the inner workings, a subsystem can simply be thought of as an element.==
Attributes:
Systems, subsystems, and elements all have distinguishing characteristics called attributes.
Attributes describe the condition of systems, subsystems and elements in qualitative or quantitative terms. In human-made systems, attributes are designed so that the system performs as required.
Attributes are monitored to track the system’s behaviour and performance.
Time and cost are universal attributes of most elements in a project, and they are tracked to assess the project’s performance.
Environment & Boundary:
Environment - anything outside the system that influences the system’s behaviour or outcomes. The environment can include but is not necessarily factors like, a community/society or the atmosphere.
A system is separated from its environment by a boundary.
System Structure:
The system structure is the relationships of the links between Elements and subsystems.
Most systems, including projects, can be conceptualised as hierarchical and network systems.
Inputs, Process, Outputs:
Objective: convert inputs into outputs through a defined process.
Inputs: the raw material, resources, or prior steps necessary for the system to operate, produce outputs, and meet objectives.
Outputs: end-result of a system and the purpose for which it exists.
Process: means by which the system transforms inputs into outputs.
Input-Process-Output relationship
Constraints and Conflicts:
System constraints are limitations that inhibit the ability of a system to reach goals/objectives. Time and money are two universal constraints.
In human-made systems, the objective of the subsystems sometimes conflict with each other, which reduces the ability of the the overall system to realise objectives.
Removing conflicts between subsystems to ensure the overall system meet its objectives is called integration.
Integration:
- For a system to perform effectively and achieve its goal, all of its elements must work in unison.
- System integration - Designing, implementing, and operating a system to achieve objectives through the coordinated function of its elements and subsystems.
Open VS Closed Systems
A closed system is one which is self-contained, meaning it functions without regard to the environment.
An open system interacts with and adapts to its environment.
Human organisations and social systems are open systems.
Organisations and environments
As open systems, human organisations interact with stakeholders in the environment (customers, suppliers, union, government etc.) and rely on the environment for inputs (energy, information and raw material). In return they output goods, services and waste into the environment.
2.3 Systems Approach
The system approach:
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Considers how the behaviour of one element affects the behaviour of others and that no single element can perform effectively without help.
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Recognises interdependencies and cause effect relationships among elements.
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Retains attention on the overall system and the ultimate goal
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Avoids actions that focus exclusively on parts of the system, because it is suboptimal for the total system.
The Systems Approach Methodology
Methodology for solving problems and managing systems.
Accounts for:
- Objectives and performance criteria of the system
- Environment and constraints of the system
- Resources of the system
- Elements of the system and their functions, attributes and performance measures
- Interaction among the elements
- Management of the system
- Employs models
System Models
A model is a simplified representation of the world with the purpose of abstracting essential features from the system under study.
A physical model is a scaled-down abstraction of the real system. Includes some aspects of the system and exclude others e.g a model airplane.
A conceptual model depicts the elements, structure and flows in a system in terms of a schematic diagram or mathematical formulation e.g. population dynamics model
System Life Cycle
Basic life cycle of organisms:
Basic life cycle of human-designed systems is called the Systems Development Cycle
Phases:
- Conception
- Definition
- Design
- Development
- Fabrication
- Testing
- Installation/Launch/Production
- Operation and Maintenance
- Enhancement
- Replacement or Termination
The prescribed stages/phases for large-scale development projects is called Systems Engineering
Systems Engineering
The science of designing complex systems in their totality to ensure that the components and subsystems of the system are well-designed, fitted, checked, and operate effectively.
The conception, design and development of complex systems where the components themselves needs to be designed, developed and integrated together.
A way to bring a whole system into existence and account for its whole life cycle.
